Mediation and Arbitration

Mediation and arbitration are often quite effective in bringing about successful resolution to conflicts. Both mediation and arbitration have roles is resolving many conflict issues, such as divorce, employment, injuries, accidents, professional malpractice, disagreements between neighbors, and almost any type of civil dispute. The American Arbitration Association is one organization that provides services, solutions, and resources to those seeking to resolve their conflicts outside of court and as fairly as possible. This paper will examine the function of mediation and arbitration, its drawbacks, and how the AAA can be useful in a communications career.

Mediation and arbitration are tools available to those wishing to resolve their conflicts outside of taking legal action. Mediation is when a neutral third party is brought in to “[facilitate] communication between the conflicting parties so that they may work out their own mutually acceptable agreement,” (Cahn, 2007, p. 195) while arbitration is when “a neutral third party considers both sides of a dispute and makes a decision, which is more binding than that of a judge in the legal system if both parties have agreed in advance to abide by the decision (no appeal)” (p. 195). Agreeing to abide by an arbitration decision or coming up with an agreeable resolution through mediation can not only be beneficial, but is often much less expensive than taking things to court.

One example of a situation where people might want to avoid court is in a divorce proceeding. Emotions run high, assets are involved, and often arguments about child custody frustrate the separation process. Divorce lawyers are quite expensive and can leave the couple financially devastated. Although mediation is not the right alternative in every divorce, it can be mutually beneficial in some instances for this reason;

[T]he typical family mediation paradigm shifts the focus from rights-based litigation, deemed so harmful to participants in divorce proceedings, to an interest-based analysis of "win-win" alternatives likely to meet each party's and the children's individual and collective needs post-divorce. (Langan, 2011)

Divorce through mediation can ameliorate some of the psychologically devastating effects of the typical courtroom battle

Another example of effective mediation is in neighborhood disputes. Issues like a tree on one person’s property overhanging and creating problems on a neighbor’s property can be resolved through mediation. According to Lea (2012), “Situations where noise from a nearby bar is disturbing residents or a resident's band is upsetting his neighbours [sic] are other examples of disputes that can be settled with the help of [mediation].”

Arbitration differs from mediation in that the arbitrator’s decision is legally binding, as if the parties involved had gone to court. This is both a benefit and a drawback to the arbitration process. Cahn (2007, p. 195) observed that prisons house many people who decided to take justice into their own hands using violence against those who were perceived cross them. For individuals wanting to pursue a more civilized route, arbitration can resolve simple, as well as complex disputes.

Arbitration can benefit employees in disciplinary disputes between them and management. Students may need arbitration to settle a dispute at their college or university. Arbitration is generally informal, non-public, and provides a way for all parties involved to achieve resolution in such a way as to resume a working relationship. Depending on the situation, arbitration usually results in both parties being satisfied.

As valuable as mediation and arbitration are, there are their drawbacks. For instance, “Since these alternative procedures are not bound to follow legal precedent in coming to a decision, parties cannot count on legal precedent to be determinative of the result” (Taylor, 2012). Sometimes finding a mediator or arbitrator who all parties trust to be unbiased can be a challenge. Mediation alone, especially in a divorce, is that it is done with legal representation, which can result in a settlement that is imbalanced, unfair to, or not clearly understood by one of the parties (Langan, 2011). Additionally, not all mediators have been properly trained and certified.

One of many organizations that offer mediation and arbitration services is the American Arbitration Association. Their mediators and arbitrators are certified and trained in multiple areas of expertise, including; accounting, communications, healthcare, entertainment and sports, insurance, intellectual property, among others, in commercial, consumer, government, and international arenas (AAA, 2011). This organization provides guides, forms, and educational resources for those seeking alternatives to dispute resolutions (ADRs).

An organization such as AAA can be very valuable in the field of interpersonal communications. Many satisfying career opportunities exist in corporate and business communications, especially in human resources, which often people with communication skills to resolve disputes between employees or between employees and management. Social service jobs also require trained personnel who have interpersonal relationship skills and can resolve conflicts with clients. AAA offers the tools and services for someone interested in the mediation process. For me, personally, I can see how an arbitration organization such as this can provide me with the means to make a difference and effect change in the workplace as I pursue a career that involves inter and intrapersonal skills.

The function and role of mediation and arbitration are crucial in any type of dispute ranging from personal and community relationships to work or school related relationships. The effectiveness of mediating between disturbed parties is only as good as the professional mediator. Having the ability to bring resolution to conflicts is both a challenge and a rewarding endeavor. The American Arbitration Association is an organization that can offer the training, certification, and resources to become a successful and dynamic force in helping people find resolution to their conflicts.

References

American Arbitrator Association. (2011). Dispute Resolution Services Worldwide. Retrieved July 2, 2012, from http://www.adr.org/aaa/faces/home?_afrLoop=49693280234785&_afrWindowMode=0&_afrWindowId=_new#%40%3F_afrWindowId%3D_new%26_afrLoop%3D4969328023     4785%26_afrWindowMode%3D0%26_adf.ctrl-state%3Dwe420k2kj_95

Cahn, D.D., & Abigail, R.A. (2007). Managing conflict through communication (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Langan, E. (2011). We Can Work It Out 1: Using Cooperative Mediation - a Blend of Collaborative Law and Traditional Mediation - to Resolve Divorce Disputes. The Review of Litigation, 30(2), 245-318.  Retrieved July 2, 2012, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 2336190021).

Lea, D..  (2012, June 20). Community Conflict Resolution Services helps neighbours resolve conflicts. Oakville Beaver,1.  Retrieved July 2, 2012, from Canadian Newsstand          Complete. (Document ID: 2692872461).

Taylor, S. (2012). What Are Mediation and Arbitration. AllLaw.com. Retrieved July 2, 2012, from http://www.alllaw.com/articles/legal/article9.asp.

Conflict and Communication

Introduction

As long as there are relationships there will be conflict. Conflict is inevitable because no two personalities are alike. No matter how much people care for one another, conflicts arise because everyone has different needs. This paper will explore why conflict occurs, the role of personality types in conflict management, the positive and negative effects of conflict, communication techniques, and facework theory in regard to conflict management.

The Nature of Conflict

Interpersonal conflict can be thought of as a disagreement between people holding different views about an issue or having different behavioral styles that affect their ability to interact harmoniously. When two or more people have incompatible ideas or goals, they clash. This results in each person’s efforts to achieve their goals being frustrated, which creates a communication barrier. Everyone has goals; some goals are as simple as wanting a peaceful, relaxing evening, while others are complex, such as increasing the monthly revenue of a diverse sales department. When someone else has an idea contrary to the goal, or is at odds with how to achieve the same goal, the resulting interpersonal conflict disrupts the relationship between the involved parties.

Conflicts can occur between people even if they only perceive there is a problem. Cahn observes, “Whether or not people’s perceptions of the conflict situation are accurate, until they are able to confirm or change those perceptions, they act as though their perceptions are real” (Cahn, 2007, p. 5). Perceptions mean everything in conflict because they determine how successful the conflict resolution process will be. This is especially true in marital relationships.

Personality Types

Perceptions about others and the world are frequently based on personality types, which affect how we see conflict and attempt to resolve it. Dijkstra (2005) argues that “individuals high in agreeableness, extraversion and emotional stability interpret conflict situations differently from individuals that can be characterized as disagreeable, introvert and neurotic.” In addition to the level of agreeableness in individuals, nine Enneagram personality types clarify how people respond to conflict. These types are; the Reformer, the Helper, the Achiever, the Individualist, the Investigator, the Loyalist, the Enthusiast, the Challenger, and the Peacemaker (The Enneagram Institute. (n.d.). Each type handles conflict differently. Each personality has strengths and weaknesses that can either facilitate or impede the conflict resolution process. The following list summarizes how each type tends to handle conflict:

Reformers, achievers, and challengers address conflict when it arises. Reformers do so for ethical reasons and because of their sense of mission. Achievers do not put things off because they want to reach their goals. Challengers address conflict right away because they are self-confident and self-interested.

Helpers, peacemakers, and individualists would rather avoid conflict. Helpers avoid conflict because they do not want to risk hurting someone’s feelings. Peacemakers want harmony between everyone. Individualists would rather avoid conflict than put themselves on the line.

Investigators, enthusiasts, and loyalists are willing to engage in conflict resolution because they tend to be optimistic and they enjoy solving problems. They find it rewarding to make a difference in relationships and find innovative ways to resolve differences.

Interpersonal relationships at home and in the workplace can be improved greatly just by being aware of personality types and how they interact with others. Lynaugh (2006) posits;

As we look deeper at relationship awareness theory, it provides personal insight into what motivates us to behave and act the way we do, both when things are going well and when we are managing conflict. Each of the types mentioned above relate to conflict in different ways, and knowledge of how to handle disagreements and confrontations is key to maintaining a healthy workplace environment.

As stated in the forgoing, just knowing how various personalities deal with conflict can be a key in resolving problems when they come up instead of letting them build.

Positive and Negative Effects of Conflict

Conflict is often viewed as negative because there is a potential for “loss of face,” which will be addressed later. People think of conflict as two opposing forces which struggle against one another until one person arises victorious and the other goes down to defeat. However, conflict can bring positive outcomes if all parties desire to work toward a resolution that results in a win-win outcome, where everyone has at least a portion of their needs met. When conflict occurs within a group of people, it can become a time of creative brainstorming. Brookins (2012) suggests that “Conflict can also cause members to actively listen to each other as they work to accomplish the organizations’ goals.” When people have the same end-goal in view, they can work through their differences in how to achieve it.

The negative aspects of conflict occur when people avoid or ignore it for so long without addressing the issues, that problems mount, resentments and frustrations increase, and the situation ends up exploding into an ugly scene. Conflict gets a “bad rap” because too many people handle it badly. They do not have the skills to engage in constructive conflict management. Knowing how to constructively resolve problems in interpersonal relationships takes desire, effort, and self-discipline. One person can use good communication techniques and bring positive change, but conflict resolution is most successful when all individuals concerned are willing to work through their differences.

Communication Techniques

Conflict resolution can be achieved through the use of one or more techniques; some of which are more effective than others.  Three communication options are other-centered, self-centered, and relationship-centered. Other-centered communication focuses on the other person and neglects self, resulting in a win-lose outcome. Self-centered communication focuses on meeting the needs of self and disregarding the needs of the other party, resulting in a win-lose outcome. Relationship-centered communication is preferable because it takes into account the needs of all parties involved, which results in win-win outcomes.

The positive aspect of relationship-centered communication is that it allows for collaboration and the use of the S-TLC system. S-TLC advises a person in conflict to first Stop. Evaluate the situation and get emotions under control. Next, think and then listen to the other person before speaking. Finally, choose to communicate in a calm and mature manner with the goal in mind of finding a win-win solution.

Facework

Being able to save face, or in other words to maintain one’s self-image, is dependent on a process called facework. When people work together to address the issues, conflicts are more likely to be resolved and relationships can be preserved. Oetzel (2000) posits, “Facework has important implications for the quality of relationships. From the face-negotiation theory perspective, the quality to which face is managed during conflict will impact the quality of the relationship.” Facework takes effort, but it allows a person to preserve one’s own face or self-respect and preserves the face of the other party. In order to accomplish this, a repair sequence must be initiated. This involves asking the offending party for an explanation of their behavior, which may be “an excuse or justification, a concession, or an apology” (Cahn, 2007, p. 170), and finally an assessment of what happened. Only then can the real issues be addressed and the processes of reconciliation begin.

Conclusion

We have been able to determine the nature of conflict; its causes and inevitability, and explored how personality plays an important role in conflict management. Because conflicts in relationships will always exist since no two people are alike, they can best be managed if the involved parties have a positive view of conflict, realizing that it can be a catalyst for positive change. A wound can only be healed if the infection is cleaned and dressed. Likewise, conflict resolution and restoration of relationships can only occur when people are willing to earnestly address the issues with a win-win outcome in mind.

References

Askari, M., Noah, S., Hassan, S., & Baba, M.. (2012). Comparison the Effects of Communication and Conflict Resolution Skills Training on Marital Satisfaction. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 4(1), 182-195. Retrieved June 25, 2012, from Research Library. (Document ID: 2653991041).

Brookins, M. (2012). The Effects of Conflict Within an Organization. Hearst Communications. Retrieved from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/effects-conflict-within-organization-164.html

Cahn, D.D., & Abigail, R.A. (2007). Managing conflict through communication (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Dijkstra, M., Van Dierendonck, D., Evers, A., & De Dreu, C. (2005). Conflict and well-being at work: the moderating role of personality. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 20(1/2), 87-104. Retrieved June 25, 2012, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 813985351).

Lynagh, W., (2006). What's Your Type and Why Does It Matter? Physician Executive, 32(1), 24-
27. Retrieved June 25, 2012, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 969297631).

Oetzel, J., Ting-Toomey, S., Yokochi, Y., Masumoto, T., & Takai, J. (2000). A typology of facework behaviors in conflicts with best friends and relative strangers. Communication Quarterly, 48(4), 397-419. Retrieved June 25, 2012, from Research Library. (Document ID: 78299970).

The Enneagram Institute. (n.d.) Free Enneagram Test: The RHETI Sampler. Retrieved from http://www.enneagraminstitute.com/dis_sample_36.asp.

Example of a Written Evaluation

Evaluation of WholeHealthMD.com

WholeHealthMD.com is a health alternative site claiming to provide the best current information available in regard to holistic and non-traditional medicine being combined with conventional healthcare treatments. The site is said to be developed by board-certified doctors and specialists. There are subsections providing recipes, expert opinions, a reference library, and articles on the latest research.

This report will evaluate five American Telemedicine Association criteria for a quality site.

Guideline 1: The site must be sponsored by a reputable healthcare organization and provide objective material.

Objective met: WholeHealthMD is affiliated with Healthways, an organization accredited by the URAC (Utilization Review Accreditation Commission) and the NCQA (National Committee for Quality Assurance). (Healthways, 2012)

Guideline 2: Information sources must be clearly documented.

Objective met: The reference section of the website has a list of treatments, therapies, supplements, and herbal remedies that a consumer can read information on. Each treatment has a detailed explanation of benefits and cautions, followed by several references of where the information comes from.

Guideline 3: Diagnosis and suggested treatments avoid direct sales of certain products and/or medications.

Objective met: No product offerings are visible on the site. No advertisements for any brands or companies are present.

Guideline 4: Medical professionals must be fully licensed and their credentials clearly posted.

Objective met: Over a dozen medical professionals are listed under the “Meet Our Team” webpage, providing information on where they obtained their degrees, what their specialties are, and other related achievements (WholeHealthMD, 2012).

Guideline 5: Policies and procedures must be clearly posted in regard to patient privacy and record maintenance.

Objective met: A tab for the privacy policy is clearly visible. WholeHealthMD does not keep records or give medical advice as a substitute for seeing a personal physician. Any personal health information given by the consumer to WholeHealthMD will be held in confidentiality.

Due to the abundance of information on the Internet, some of it very good, but much of it subjective and inaccurate, it is imperative that consumers carefully review healthcare related websites before using the information. As noted by Blair, “Without such critical analysis, use of the internet for accessing health information could be detrimental” (Blair, 2005). It would helpful to consumers if a quality seal of assurance label could be placed on websites that have been peer-reviewed and approved; however, until that time consumers must be wise and always consult their personal physician before treating their own illnesses with information obtained over the internet.

No recommendations for improvement are being given at this time as WholeHealthMD appears to meet all the criteria suggested by the ATA.

References

American Telemedicince Association. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.americantelemed.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageID=3311

Blair, J. (2005).  Assessing the Value of the Internet in Health Improvement.  Retrieved from http://www.intellectualdisability.info/changing-values/assessing-the-value-of-the-internet-in-health-improvement

Healthways. (2012). Accreditations. Retrieved from http://www.healthways.com/about/default.aspx?id=72

WholeHealthMD.com. (2012). Meet Our Team. Retrieved from http://www.wholehealthmd.com/ME2/dirmod.asp?sid=2188C8978B0049FEA48FFD69D8350AF6&nm=Meet+Our+Team&type=AWHN_Team&mod=Home&tier=1

How to Brew Coffee

Introduction

The value of a great-tasting cup of coffee cannot be underestimated, especially by a coffee enthusiast. There is no one magic way to make good coffee because everyone has their own tastes. Some people enjoy it strong, others less so. Other things to consider are whether you want an espresso, flavors, cream or milk, and what kind of sweetener. Is the purpose of drinking it to boost your energy level or to complement a meal? Different processes are used for different types of coffee beverages. The process for brewing a basic, good cup of all-purpose coffee follows below.

Supplies and Equipment    

The best cup of coffee comes from freshly ground beans, therefore it is important to buy only enough whole beans for one to two weeks at a time. To grind your own beans, purchase a burr or mill grinder, as opposed to one with a spinning blade. This is because having a consistent and uniform grind is important to the extraction process as the water removes the essential flavors and oils from the coffee as it brews.

Good quality water is essential to brewing delicious coffee. If your tap water tastes bad, so will your coffee. It is best to use filtered water.; however, if all you have on hand is tap water, let it run for a few seconds before filling the reservoir on your coffee maker so the initial strong chlorine taste has a chance to dissipate somewhat.

Filters are another consideration. Paper filters are convenient because they can be thrown away and make clean-up easier. The disadvantage is that they remove many of the particles that give coffee a rich flavor. By using a metal filter, these particles pass through, giving your coffee a “full-bodied” taste. Some sediment is found at the bottom of your coffee cup by using a metal filter, but this is not a bad thing! Just swirl or stir your coffee cup before finishing the last few sips.

Method

Use the amount of ground coffee suggested on the package for best results. Usually one to two tablespoons are recommended for every six ounces of water depending on how strong you like it. If you like weaker coffee, it is better to brew it strong and then add water to your cup afterward for best flavor. For drip-coffee makers a medium grind is preferable. If the grind is too fine, you will end up with an over-extraction of the coffee, resulting in a bitter flavor.

Coffee is best enjoyed within 15 to 20 minutes of being brewed. The longer it sits on the heating element of the coffee maker, the more likely it is to “burn.” This happens when the temperature is too hot or when the coffee has been sitting on the heat for a prolonged period of time. Only make as much coffee as will be drank within this time. If it is necessary for the coffee to sit longer than this, transfer it from the pot to an insulated container, such as a carafe, and use within 45 minutes.

Conclusion

Coffee can be enjoyed either black or with half-and-half, milk, creamer, sweeteners, or flavored syrups. If you like your coffee sweetened, experiment and try using raw or organic sugar, or agave for a unique taste and as a healthier alternative. The good news is that coffee drinkers can reap health benefits. While the evidence is not conclusive, studies indicate that drinking several cups of coffee a day may prevent diabetes, dementia, heart rhythm disturbances, and Parkinson’s disease (Osterweil, 2010). So brew some fresh coffee, drink, and enjoy!

Watch this fun and informative video on coffee
by Alton Brown

References

National Coffee Association USA. (n.d.). How to Brew Coffee: The Definitive Guide. Retrieved   from http://www.ncausa.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=72

Osterweil, N. (2012). Coffee and Your Health. WebMD. Retrieved from     http://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/features/coffee-new-health-food

Wortman, M. (2012). Drip-Brew (North American Coffee). Retrieved from             http://makegoodcoffee.com/brewing_drip

Breastfeeding Instructions

Introduction

     This might be your first baby or the first baby you will be breastfeeding, but you already have some experience in feeding or caring for infants. You may have watched a friend or relative nurse their baby watched instructional videos at birthing classes. You are familiar with the human anatomy and know what goes where and why. This instructional hand-out will be a basic refresher for moms of new babies and additional caregivers.

     As you have discovered through reading or from your doctor’s recommendation, breastfeeding is the best choice for providing for the nutritional, immunological, and emotional needs of your baby. Human milk was perfectly designed for the growth and health of human infants, providing just the right balance of vitamins, minerals, and antibodies for proper growth and the development of your baby’s immune system. For these and perhaps other reasons, you have chosen to breastfeed your newborn; so let’s get started!

Newborns and Hunger

     Your baby will let you know when she is hungry. Crying, sucking on her fingers or fists, and responding to your touch with the rooting reflex are often signs that she is ready to eat. The rooting reflex is an action triggered by touching or stroking an infant’s cheek. When this happens she will turn her head with her mouth open toward the side her cheek was touched. While the rooting reflex is present only until about four or five months of age, it can continue in some infants up to around 12 months old (Bennett, 2004).

Fathers and Caregivers

     There may be times when you will be unable to breastfeed due to absence or illness or whatever reason. In this instance someone else will need to feed your baby. The best alternative to breastfeeding is to have your breast milk on hand to be given to your baby in a bottle. This can be done in advance by using a manual or electric breast pump. Your breast milk may be refrigerated for use later the same day, or frozen for use up to 14 days (for optimal nutrition). Go to Kidshealth.org or Le Leche League International for further information on long-term storage of 6 to 12 months.

     If you are unable to prepare breast milk in advance of your absence, use an infant formula as directed by your pediatrician. Fathers, your baby’s siblings, and other caregivers can benefit from being able to feed the baby. Close bonds can be made during this special time of holding the baby and satisfying her need for nourishment.

Preparation for Breastfeeding

     Make sure you are drinking plenty of healthy fluids throughout the day. Water and real fruit juices are best. Try to avoid alcohol, sugary drinks, or too much caffeine. Keep your nipples clean by showering daily or using a soft, clean, damp washcloth to wipe the area at least a couple times a day. If your nipples become sore or cracked, you may use a lanolin ointment, sold at most drugstores, to relieve discomfort and prevent bleeding.

     The ideal condition for breastfeeding is to find a place that is quiet and free from stress; however, as experienced mothers know, this is rarely an option. Regardless of the setting, try to get comfortable with enough room to hold your baby across your lap. Make sure he is at a comfortable angle so he does not have to turn his head too far to the side.

Steps to Breastfeeding

     Using your index and middle fingers in a “V-shape,” place your nipple between them and gently push back the areola (dark skin surrounding the nipple) to keep your breast away from your baby’s nostrils. Your baby will “latch on” with his mouth. You will know he has adequate suction by the pulling he makes and no sound of escaping air. As you relax, your milk will “let down;” meaning it will begin to flow freely into your baby’s mouth.

     Be sure to support your baby’s head in the crook of your arm, supporting the length of his body with your forearm letting his bottom rest on your hand. See that his head and upper body is slightly elevated to prevent him from gagging or having air build up in his tummy. Allow him to drink for at least five minutes before switching him to the opposite breast. It is important to feed with both breasts whenever possible at each feeding so they will produce the same amount of milk and so that one side does not become engorged (over-filled with milk to the point of discomfort).

Suggested Supplies

     To enhance your breastfeeding experience and make it pleasant and rewarding, the following items are good to have:

            A good quality support nursing bra

            Disposable and/or washable breast pads (to keep milk from leaking through clothing)

            A breast pump

            Lanolin breast ointment

            Baby bottles

Conclusion

     Breast milk benefits your baby  because it is easier to digest, is rich in nutrients, contains antibodies that fight disease, reduces risk of food allergies, and is uniquely made to help your baby develop physically and mentally (WomensHealth.gov).

For further information, go to:

Kidshealth.org

llli.org (Le Lechhe League International)

Womenshealth.gov/breastfeeding

The Effectiveness of Humor in Persuasion

So this guy walks into a bar and sees a priest, a pastor and rabbi… Okay, well maybe not a bar; maybe it was a church. But then why would a rabbi be in a church? All right, scratch that. So a guy walks into a priest, a pastor, and a rabbi… Humor; everyone likes a good joke or a good laugh now and then. It lifts the spirit, lightens the mood, and warms the heart. Humor has been known to deflect arguments, disarm antagonists, and silence critics. The benefits of humor—including physical and emotional health—touch every aspect of our lives. The question is; can humor be used as a technique to effect change, persuade an audience, or impact success? This article will examine the effectiveness of humor, as well as the associated risks, as applied to several persuasion theories.

A fairly recent product, making its debut in 2008, has become a household name; the Snuggie. Even before many people knew what it was, essentially a blanket with sleeves, “Snuggie” was imprinted on their minds through the Mere Exposure Effect;

Stated simply, some messages “grow on us.” Thus, a consumer who encountered a product logo on several different occasions would tend to evaluate that logo more favorably than he or she would other, unfamiliar logos. It wouldn't matter whether the consumer knew what the familiar logo represented (Seiter & Gass, 2004, p. 47).

One of the techniques added to commercials by AllStar Products, Snuggie’s designer, was humor. There was a purpose for it; they “designed the Snuggie's quirky name and comedic commercials to get consumers laughing and—more importantly—talking about their product” (Business Insider, n.d.). Snuggie’s use of humor was an effective strategy.

Using humor in advertising carries the risk of alienating or offending certain groups of people. The milk industry recently ran a series of ads promoting milk as a way to alleviate symptoms of premenstrual syndrome; “The organization decided to use humor in the ads by showing how men are affected by their partner's PMS symptoms” (BestThinking, n.d.). The article points out that the California Milk Board has received some criticism because some people view the ads as being sexist.

In addition, advertisers, public speakers, authors, et al, may learn, to their chagrin, that their intended audience does not find the ad, joke, or story funny or appropriate. They might not “get it” for a variety of reasons, one of which could be an age barrier. For example, references made to comedic icons Bob Hope and Milton Berle, or to nostalgic practices of the distant past may go over the heads of younger viewers. Humor can backfire if the individual or entity using it does not know the dynamics of their audience.

One thing to keep in mind is that people evaluate messages based on the positions they hold. This phenomenon is known as the Social Judgment theory, which argues that;

[A] person has a most preferred position, called an anchor point. This anchor point functions as a reference point or “psychological benchmark” against which other positions and viewpoints are evaluated Seiter & Gass, 2004, p. 55).

This is to say, people who have very strong feelings about an issue are unlikely to be persuaded to the contrary despite the use of humor in an opposing argument. It will depend on how deeply committed a person is to an ideal or value.

In the persuasion theory known as the Elaboration Likelihood Model, humor notwithstanding, individuals will be influenced by the content of a message to the extent they are involved with the matter. Jim Lyttle explains;

“If the issue is salient to them, then they will focus systematically on the message itself and analyze it according to traditional criteria such as logos, pathos, and ethos. If they find the argument compelling, they will become convinced (Lyttle, 2001).

If an issue is not important or urgent to an audience, heuristic tactics, such as humor, gimmicks, and anecdotal devices can be influential (Cline & Kellaris, 1999). People’s behavior is influenced by their attitudes toward something. Thus, according to the Theory of Reasoned Action, “[fa]vorable attitudes lead to approach behavior, and unfavorable attitudes lead to avoidance behavior” (Seiter & Gass, 2004, p. 53). Humor can be an effective tool because it inclines an individual to develop a more favorable attitude toward the subject at hand.

While using humor does carry some associated risks, it can be quite effective when used properly. Appropriate humor can increase the likeability of the person speaking. Self-deprecating humor tends to boost the credibility of a person, product, or advertisement. It can put an audience at ease, hold their attention, decrease defensiveness, and reduce skepticism. Using humor as a persuasion tactic can often times create a distraction that allows the message to come through loud and clear.

Despite the benefits derived from the proper use of humor in persuasion, studies are inconclusive about its effectiveness in eliciting the desired response from the target audience. Too many variables exist. A funny joke, advertisement, or speech may get a smile or a laugh, but it does not guarantee a sale, a change of opinion, or a change heart. Humor, like any other persuasion tactic, is seasoning that can only accentuate the argument that undergirds it. Sound reasoning is the most effective method of persuasion; humor just adds to the effect.

References

BestThinking. (n.d.). Advertising Humor and the New Milk Campaign. Retrieved from http://www.bestthinking.com/trendingtopics/business_and_finance/sales_and_marketing/advertising/advertising-humor-and-the-new-milk-campaign.

Business Insider. (n.d.). How 5 Strange Products Became Household Names. Retrieved from http://www.businessinsider.com/5-unknown-products-that-became-household-names-2011-6#snuggie-2

Cline, Thomas W, & Kellaris, James J. (1999). The joint impact of humor and argument strength in a print advertising context: A case for weaker arguments. Psychology & Marketing, 16(1), 69. Retrieved April 23, 2012, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 37875581).

Lyttle, Jim. (2001). The effectiveness of humor in persuasion: The case of business ethics training. The Journal of General Psychology, 128(2), 206-16. Retrieved April 23, 2012, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 77223102).

Seiter, John E., and Gass, Robert H. (2004), Perspectives on Persuasion, Social Influence, and Compliance Gaining, Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Education, Inc.

Persuasion, Manipulation, and Seduction

The art and skill of communication is varied and complex. We are bombarded daily with messages from personal acquaintances to mass media, vying for our attention and endeavoring to persuade us to feel, think, or act based upon what we see and hear. As communicators ourselves, we attempt to persuade our own audiences—whether personal relationships or business associates—to come into agreement with our views. There is a fine line, however, between trying to persuade someone and attempting to manipulate or seduce them into compliance. This paper will define persuasion, manipulation, and seduction and explore their differences in relation to communication, including examples of each technique.

Persuasion is a broad term that embraces many theories. Authors Robert Gass and John Seiter observe that “Persuasion theories are a lot like noses; everybody has one, some big, some small, and no two exactly alike” (Seiter & Gass, 2004, p. 45). Even so, it can generally be said that “Persuasion is the process by which a person’s attitudes or behaviors are, without duress, influenced by other people through communication” (Codoban, 2006, p. 151).

Examples of common forms of persuasion would be teachers expounding on the benefits of education, preachers giving sermons on the reasons for doing good things to others, and parents explaining to their children why they should follow family rules. While the messages are sometimes benign and other times forceful, they engage the listener’s reasoning and logic and present information through which he or she can process the message and act accordingly.

The commercial messages we see and hear every day are usually persuasive. In a Journal of Marketing article, Myers-Levy reminds us, “Regardless of their content and the techniques they employ, most messages share a common final goal: persuading target consumers to adopt a particular product, service, or idea” (Meyers-Levy, 1999).

Manipulation does not engage the mind, but relies on automatic responses. Codoban notes that,

Manipulation is, according to Robert B. Cialdini, “the ability to produce a distinct kind of automatic, mindless compliance from people, that is, a willingness to say yes without thinking first. The evidence suggests that the ever-accelerating pace and informational crush of modern life will make this particular form of unthinking compliance more and more prevalent in the future” (Codoban, 2006, p. 154).

This technique goes beyond reasonable appeals to the conscience or mind and is intended to elicit a response based on raw programming. In other words, it is meant to sway recipients by means of keeping them passive and reacting on a subconscious level.

Examples of manipulation are political speeches by candidates, which are intended to shape and influence public opinion;

For many political observers, the political history of the twentieth century seemed to illustrate the potential for elites to mold public opinion in ways that were both horrendous (such as the German Nazis’ use of mass rallies) as well as narrowly opportunistic within the confines of representative government (Jacobs, 2001).

Insurance sales people often use fear tactics to manipulate a prospective client into purchasing coverage. Children can use manipulation, such as temper tantrums, to control parents.

Two methods employed by manipulators are called the “foot-in-the-door” technique and the “door-in-the-face” technique. The “foot-in-the-door” technique is to ask for something meaningless in order to get something of value. Panhandlers use this type of manipulation when they ask for the time, followed by a plea for loose change (Codoban, 2006, p. 153). The “door-in-the-face” technique is to ask for something big in order to gain a concession for something small. An example would be a grown child asking his parents to allow him to move back home, knowing his parents will say no, but knowing they will offer him money to pay his rent and bills.

Seduction is the tactic used to lure or seduce an audience into doing or buying something based on human desires. In other words, it appeals to the human desire for happiness or pleasure.

Seduction promises something that it cannot give: an entire, total happiness, without discontinuity and tiredness; just like in movies, or in commercials! The postmodern seduction is a phenomena focused on masses, because it is interested in quantity, just like manipulation, and in its difference from persuasion which is individualized (Codoban, 2006, p. 155).

Seduction promises to fulfill and complete what is missing in the life of the hearer. People are often seduced into giving their life savings in exchange for the promise of unlimited wealth. Con artists prey on the desire of people to have more material possessions. Men and women are sometimes seduced by the promise of romance or relationships, only to be taken advantage of, used, and dumped by the seducer.

Ultimately, audiences respond to persuasion, manipulation, and seduction based on their own perceptions and needs. Those who value knowledge and make their decisions by weighing all the possibilities and outcomes will respond best to persuasion. An audience that is passive is easily manipulated. People with unfulfilled desires are more likely to succumb to seduction.

All three tactics share a commonality, which is to affect change in either individuals or the masses. These tactics differ in strategy and motivation. Where persuaders are motivated to inform and engage listeners, manipulators are motivated to gain compliance through control, deceit, or unethical means, and seducers are motivated to fill their own needs while depriving others of fulfillment.

Regardless of what type of responders we generally are, we encounter a multitude of persuasion, manipulation, and seduction tactics on a regular basis, both as recipients and promoters. Communication is an art and a skill. We walk a fine line in our communication efforts between these modes and must be on guard when sending messages so that we do not try to influence others in unethical ways. We must also be aware of these techniques so that we do not fall victim to manipulation and seduction attempts by individuals or the media.

References

Codoban, A. (2006). From persuasion to manipulation and seduction. SCRI Conference,14, 151 – 158. Retrieved April 10, 2012, from http://vizedhtmlcontent.next.ecollege.com/pub/content/7303136c-1384-4799-959b-55428afb6176/Aurel_Codoban_Article_Week_2.pdf?eclg_res=1356403&eclg_resver=2640695

Jacobs, L. R. (2001). Commentary: Manipulators and Manipulation: Public Opinion in a Representative Democracy. Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 26(6), 1361-1374. Duke University Press. Retrieved April 10, 2012, from Project MUSE database.

Joan Meyers-Levy, & Prashant Malaviya. (1999). Consumers' processing of persuasive advertisements: An integrative framework of persuasion theories. Journal of Marketing, 63, 45-60. Retrieved April 10, 2012, from ProQuest Central. (Document ID: 46028147).

Seiter, J., & Gass, R. (2004).  Perspectives on Persuasion, Social Influence, and Compliance Gaining [Electronic version]. Pearson Custom Publishing).